Foreign Military During Control On The Street - 1908 Words

Liana Arnot Professor Dominguez English 101 4 December 2015 Imagine stepping outside and there was a foreign military in control on the street that you live on. Having one s home invaded by an unfamiliar person is a scary and traumatizing experience. It encourages a person to take more precautionary measures to ensure that their home is safe, but being watchful is not always a guarantee of safety. This concept reflects what the people of Okinawa experienced in the nineteen forties and still struggle with today. The beautiful island of Okinawa is located south of Japan and is composed of several small islands. Okinawa was its own Ryukyu Kingdom before it was annexed by the Japanese in 1879 (mainichi.jp). Today, the Japanese government itself does not truly treat Okinawa as an equal to mainland Japan. In fact, many of the Okinawans do not consider themselves to be Japanese and actively voice that their culture is starkly different than that of the Japanese people. The Japanese government is placing these bases on the Okinawanâ⠂¬â„¢s home without consulting them. It is an unfair act upon the locals because their home is being taken from and they can do nothing to stop it. The bases are not only disliked by the locals but it is also harming their marine life and polluting their environment. Mainland Japan is fully capable of housing the new military bases but they would rather throw it on the nonviolent island of Okinawa. The locals of Okinawa have not had a pleasant experienceShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires869 Words   |  4 Pagespeople and from the heritage of Islam, they adopted similar policies, they looked for ways to keep peace in their societies which were made up of different religious and ethnic backgrounds, and they were associated with literary and artistic talents. Military and religious factors gave rise to all three of these empires. 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It relaxed rules in banking and savings and loan industries to help encourage loans for people to buy houses and start businesses. The idea behind the plan was to put more money in the pockets of peopleRead MoreThe United States Foreign Aid to Developing Countries: A Research Report1679 Words   |  7 Pagesworlds leader in foreign aid to developing countries. It gives foreign aid to such countries in order to promote political stability and economic prosperity, a natural interest for any global hegemon. This aid comes in the form of money, food, humanitarian work, and military assistance. The countries who receive the foreign aid certainly need assistance, but do not always use the aid wisely. Now that our country is undergoing serious fiscal deficits, the nations costly foreign aid commitments mustRead MoreInvestigating The Militarization Of Police Essay1332 Words   |  6 PagesAmerica. Unfortunately, post 9/11 war on terror has strengthened the military persona. 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There are beggars on the streets of London, several homeless families living under theRead MoreThe Lasting Impression of World War I1102 Words   |  4 Pagesthey were returning to a country that found itself facing struggles politically and economically. These treacherous conditions would lead to the rise of the Third Reiche and the undeniable quest for control of Adolf Hitler. The rise of the Third Reiche began to surface during World War I. As the military had been greatly reduced in numbers, it barely was able to maintain coastal security for the country. Another issue Germany was inevitably faced with were financial hardships resulting in despairRead MoreEssay about U.S.-Middle East Relations724 Words   |  3 Pagesscandal in which Ronald Reagans administration sold military arms to Iran. At this time they were in the midst of the Iran-Iraq War, while the United States had hostages held in Lebanon by Hezbollah. 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Strengths And Weaknesses Of Dualism - 1357 Words

It seems very funny, ironic and challenging to try and understand the mind. Perhaps that is why we continue to have so many questions about it. After all, we are trying to understand the entity, or matter that does the understanding in the first place? One fundamental question that has guided this endeavor is, â€Å"what is the mind?† and more specifically, â€Å"what is the mind in relation to the brain?†(Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 26) Three theories have emerged as the prevailing thoughts in today’s age that try and make sense of the mind: monism, dualism and functionalism. Each have their own strengths and weaknesses, but all-in-all, I believe that dualism is the strongest theory. It supports my Christian belief system and best explains what†¦show more content†¦(Descartes, Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 31) Furthermore, these two realms cannot be reduced into each other (Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 464). This explains the mind as something diffe rent or other than physical. The mental aspects are explained in various ways that can make up sub-theories of dualism. The mental can be your soul or spirit, or it can be a different substance than the brain in substance dualism (Descartes, Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 32), or even can be made up of the same material as the brain, but have different properties in property dualism. (Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 33). Functionalism takes an interesting turn from its counterparts of monism and dualism to ask, â€Å"are minds limited to brains?† (Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 35), and â€Å"is it more important to our understanding of reality what something does than what something is?† (Turner, Lecture_4ppx) To make sense of this question Friedenburg Silverman discusses two ways of classification: Physical kinds - groupings based on physical or material makeup (Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 474) and functional kinds - groupings based on similar actions and tendencies ( Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 467). Functionalism looks at the mind with functionality as paramount since the mental states can be performed in different ways in different entities, but produce the same result, or function (Friedenburg Silverman, 2012: 35) Considering these various views, dualism seems to be theShow MoreRelatedThe Strengths and Weaknesses of Dualism4580 Words   |  19 PagesDualism is the belief that reality consists of two different, separate substances: that of the mental and that of the physical. In philosophy of mind, the belief that the mental and physical are deeply different in kind: thus the mental is at least not identical with the physical. It directly opposes materialism, as dualism dictates that the mind is unidentifiable to the body, as opposed to stating that the mind and body exist as one. The concept of dualism is not only fundamental in philosophyRead MoreWhat are the strengths and weaknesses of dualism and monism?1569 Words   |  7 PagesDuali sm and monism is a famous philosophy topic from ancient to now. The word Dualism means that our physical and our mental are independent. And our body and our mind cannot be the same. It is because of mind and body is two separate substances. In the contract, the monism means that both of the physical and mental are combined being one. And our mind and body are indivisible and are each influenced by the other. The monism and dualism individually has its strengths and weaknesses. The mindRead MoreCartesian Dualism vs Logical Behaviorism Essay1483 Words   |  6 Pagesto philosophy of the mind and discussed through a variety of arguments. Two of the most important arguments with this discussion are Cartesian dualism and logical behaviorism, both of which argue the philosophy of the mind in two completely different ways. 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The mind is that which is responsible for one’s thoughts and feelings, the seat ofRead MoreZombie Argument1653 Words   |  7 Pagesessentially serves to evaluate whether the Zombie argument against Cartesian Dualism is sound by: criticising the Zombie argument through analysing the validity of each premise of the Zombie argument, defending the Zombie argument against one of its objections and responses from the Cartesian Argument by analogy. This essay will offer reasons to believe the Zombie argument by contrasting it with the strengths and weaknesses of the Cartesian Dualist main argument and the Cartesian Dualist Argument byRead MoreThe Mind Is An Immaterial Soul Essay1139 Words   |  5 Pages In this paper I will refute the view that the mind is an immaterial soul by highlighting how substance dualism lacks explanatory power. To successfully dismantle the contentions offered by substance dualism, I will present two arguments illustrating how ineffectual this theory is at explaining everyday phenomena. My intention in doing so is to stress how theories that lack explanatory power in comparison to other, more robust, theories can be generally regarded as weaker. Once my arguments haveRead MoreCartesian Dualism And Transhumanism : Theories Within Their Time Contexts1510 Words   |  7 PagesCartesian dualism and transhumanism are both controversial theories within their time contexts. Leahey (2004) describes Descartes dualism as the separation of the body and the soul. The soul is immaterial and is the location for thought, consciousness, and the Cartesian Theatre, and controls the actions of the material body. Transhumanism theorises that technology will enhance and sup ersede human evolution (Elkins 2011,) as technology will become an extension of ourselves, or already is. I will exploreRead MoreOne of the Main Divisions Between Mainstream and Critical Social Psychology Is That of the Methods Adopted. Discuss with Reference to the Cognitive Social and at Least One Other Social Psychological Perspective.1698 Words   |  7 Pagesindividual-society dualism. The most enduring theme in social psychology is whether individual or society is privileged in the explanation of social psychological phenomena and derives from the wider dualism of explanations that have characterised western thought since the Enlightenment. Individual-society dualism often manifested in a reduction of explanation to either biological (often genetic) or social causes. Sometimes ‘both/and’ explanations also suffer form this dualism because they behaveRead MoreWhat The Problem Of Evil Is Under A General Scope1683 Words   |  7 Pagesevaluate four classic examples of solutions, or attempts, to solve the issues surrounding the problem of evil. These approaches to the problem were discussed in our textbook and include, karma, appeal to sovereignty, the consolation of promise, and dualism. I also include some selective quotations from a variety of scholars that compliment my evaluation and help further illuminate my insights. I discuss the reoccurring theme of possible indifference displayed by God in regards to humankind. I alsoRead MoreSocial And Cultural Context Of Psychology818 Words   |  4 Pagesphilosophy and physiology, before becoming an independent scientific discipline in the late 1800 s. Descartes (1641) suggested that the mind and the body work separately, together creating the human experience (Mastin L. 2008). This idea of so called dualism shaped a number of on going discussions in modern psychology, such as the nature nurture debate. In 1879 the first experimental laboratory was founded by Wilhelm Wundt, in Leipzig, Germany. This fundamental moment is referred to as the birth of Psychology

Essay Sample on School Bullying Free Essays

School bullying is a significant and widespread problem that causes harmful consequences for students all around the world. Mentors should have stricter policies and protocols in place to protect students, as well as make them feel safe when they’re at school. This article discusses three different types of bullying that occurs in elementary, middle, and high schools. We will write a custom essay sample on Essay Sample on School Bullying or any similar topic only for you Order Now The three types of bullying are overt, indirect, and relational bullying. Overt bullying includes both physical and verbal bullying. Indirect bullying ruins the student’s reputation by spreading rumors and gossip behind their back. Relational bullying is like indirect bullying except it tends to use emotional distress instead of physical bullying (Bauman, 2008). Although there are protocols in place for overt and indirect bullying, relational bullying is ignored. According to Bauman, teachers had the least empathy for victims of relational bullying and were least likely to intervene in relational bullying incidents (Bauman, 2008). Why would you not intervene when a child or student is being bullied? What examples are you setting as a student mentor? As a student mentor, you are responsible for protecting the students regardless of what type of incident it may be? When a student is bullying another student, it needs to be addressed immediately to prevent it from happening again. By supporting this type of behavior, you are teaching students that it’s ok to bully others. It’s not ok to bully others because it can cause permanent damage such as self-esteem issues, suicide, and school shootings. Therefore, students need to be held accountable for their actions. For instance, students should be required to do community service hours, pay a fine, or do 5 days of ISS (in-school suspension). The mentors need to inform the parents about the school bullying and request a meeting with the student, student’s parents, principle, teachers, counselors, the victim, and the victim’s parents. Everyone needs to be aware of the bullying incident, so they can come up with a solution to fix the problem. However, if the bullying continues then the student should be removed from the school and the victim should have the option of being able to transfer to another school as well. In conclusion, school bullying is increasing and it’s affecting a very large number of students each year. School bullying tends to occur in areas that lack adult supervision such as hallways, playgrounds, restrooms, etc. However, schools could reduce the bullying incidents by placing adult supervision in the areas that lack it, as well as adhering to proper policies and procedures regarding school bullying. By utilizing these resources, it could prevent students from being bullied at school. How to cite Essay Sample on School Bullying, Essays

1929 Stock Market Crash Essay Example For Students

1929 Stock Market Crash Essay The 1929 Stock Market Crash In early 1928 the Dow Jones Average went from a low of 191 early in the year, to a high of 300 in December of 1928 and peaked at 381 in September of 1929. (1929) It was anticipated that the increases in earnings and dividends would continue. (1929) The price to earnings ratings rose from 10 to 12 to 20 and higher for the markets favorite stocks. (1929) Observers believed that stock market prices in the first 6 months of 1929 were high, while others saw them to be cheap. (1929) On October 3rd, the Dow Jones Average began to drop, declining through the week of October 14th. (1929) On the night of Monday, October 21st, 1929, margin calls were heavy and Dutch and German calls came in from overseas to sell overnight for the Tuesday morning opening. (1929) On Tuesday morning, out-of-town banks and corporations sent in $150 million of call loans, and Wall Street was in a panic before the New York Stock Exchange opened. (1929) On Thursday, October 24th, 1929, people began to sell their stocks as fast as they could. Sell orders flooded the market exchanges. (1929) This day became known as Black Thursday. (Black Thursday) On a normal day, only 750-800 members of the New York Stock Exchange started the exchange. 1929) There were 1100 members on the floor for the morning opening. (1929) Furthermore, the exchange directed all employees to be on the floor since there were numerous margin calls and sell orders placed overnight. Extra telephone staff was also arranged at the members boxes around the floor. (1929) The Dow Jones Average closed at 299 that day. (1929) On Tuesday, October 29th, 1929, the crash began. (1929) Within the first few hours, the price fell so far as to wipe out all gains that had been made the entire previous year. (1929) This day the Dow Jones Average would close at 230. 1929) Between October 29th, and November 13 over 30 billion dollars disappeared from the American economy. (1929) It took nearly 25 years for many of the stocks to recover. (1929) By mid November, the value of the New York Stock Exchange listings had dropped over 40%, a loss of $26 billion. (1929-1931) At one point in the crash tickers were 68 minutes behind. (1929-1931) An average of about $50,000,000 a minute was wiped out on the exchange. (1929-1931) A few investors that lost all of their money jumped to their deaths from office buildings. Others gathered in the streets outside the Stock Exchange to learn how much they had lost. (Black Thursday) The Cause There are five proposed reasons as to why the stock market crashed. One of the reasons was that stocks were overpriced and the crash brought the share prices back to a normal level. However, some studies using standard measures of stock value, such as Price to Earning ratios and Price to Dividend ratios, argue that the share prices were not too high. Another reason is that there were massive frauds and illegal activity in the 1920s stock market. However, evidence revealed that there was probably very little actual insider trading or illegal manipulation. (1929) Margin buying is another reason why people believed that the crash happened. Though it is not the main reason, there was very little margin relative to the value of the market. The new President of the Federal Reserve Board, Adolph Miller, tightened the monetary policy and set out to lower the stock prices since he perceived that speculation led stocks to be overpriced, causing damage to the economy. Diabetes And Types EssayAfter the crash, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was established to lay down the law and to punish those who violated the law. (1929) Also during the crash 4,000 banks failed, for the simple reason that the banks ran out of money. Four years later, Congress passed the Glass-Steagall Act, which essentially banned any connection between commercial banks and investment banking, to ensure that this would never happen again. The Federal Reserve and other banking regulators have softened some of the Acts separation of securities and banking functions by letting banks sell certain securities through affiliated companies. (1929)

Communicable Diseases H. I. V. and A.I.D.s

Introduction A communicable disease is a disease transmitted through people, animals, and surfaces and is carried by micro organisms. They are transmitted through blood contact, close contact with an infected person or through body fluid contact of an infected to a healthy person. These diseases include Malaria, HIV-AIDS helps, whooping cough, and Mumps among others (Lengauer, Altmann, Thielen Kaiser, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Communicable Diseases: H. I. V. and A.I.D.s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This paper concentrates on HIV-AIDS; it will evaluate what measures are in place as well as the effects that the disease has on human life. H. I. V. and A.I.D.s H. I. V. is the virus that is responsible for causing A.I.D.S, a person who has the virus is at the risk of developing A.I.D.S. The virus is transmitted when body fluids of an invested person come into contact with those of an uninfec ted person. Once the virus gets into the body, it manifests and multiplies itself when hiding in the blood cells. The cell in the body that it attach itself to is the white blood cell. Before the virus can be detected in the body system, it stays for at least three months. A.I.D.S on the hand is the final stages of H.I.V. When the virus has â€Å"blown out† and having affected the white blood cells to a point that they can’t protect the body any more, optimistic diseases take advantage and affect the person; these optimistic diseases may be tuberculosis or pneumonia, they infect the body and since the body immune system is weak, it cannot fight the infections and the most probable resultant is death (Bebea, 2006). Data Findings, Evidence-Based Intervention, and a Plan to Ensure Quality Health According to 2008 UNAIDS statistics, there were 33.4 million infected people in the world with Africa having the majority. It goes further to say that since 1981; the disease has killed over 25 million people and created over 14 million orphans (See appendix for the statistic). Treatment and Care Currently there are no drugs that cure HIV. However, there have been drugs that have been developed to boost the immune system of the body and thus assist the body in fighting the disease. They are called ARVs, antiviral drugs. Their aim is to help the body fight the diseases that come as optimistic to the body weak system. Other than those drugs, the diseases that attack the body are cured in the normal way like in the case of a healthy person. Physicians are developing immunization medicines but not much success has been achieved. The second approach to take care of the disease is by creating a massive public awareness. This will assist the public to take preventive measure which include, abstaining from having sex, being faithful to one spouse, and finally use of condoms when having sex as a preventive measure (Brown Qaqish, 2006).Advertising Looking for re search paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Environmental Factors Related to the Disease Sexual intercourse; there are different modes of sexual intercourse that human beings interact in; they are heterosexual, homosexual, and lesbianism. In all the above sexual intercourse, there involves the mixing of body fluids of the concerned parties. If one of them is having the virus it is transmitted to the other one during this process. Blood transmission – in case of blood transmission, the blood of one person is given to another, this is in medical situations, and there have been circumstances where blood that is already invested with the disease is given to a patient, though this is a rare case, it spreads the virus. Parental transmission – this is when the child gets the virus from the parent when breast feeding. Usage of contaminated instruments or syringes- this happens when one uses instrumen ts that have already been used by a person who has the virus, this is common in drug users when they inject themselves the drugs that they are using; if one of them is contaminated he/she can transmit the virus to the others during this period (Turner, D. et al, 2005). The Influence of Lifestyles, Socioeconomic Status, and Disease Management The disease makes an individual weak to a point that he cannot be productive person in his country. It is a disease that requires management in terms of medicine and a special diet. When a person is infected most are the times that he faces negative discrimination and thus he is not able to fully participate in nation development. His social economic status depletes. When managing the disease it takes the efforts of the government and peoples concerned to manage the disease. This calls for government resources being directed to such programs like awareness campaigns and drug development/purchasing (Basavapathruni Anderson). Gaps and Methods for Linking To Other Resources to Meet Needs That Are Not Locally Available For the Population People have not fully understood the fact that the disease can be managed and the person suffering from it need not be discriminated. In places like jobs and public offices there should be no discrimination since when one manages his condition well, he can stay a healthy life like any other person (Turner, 2005). Recommendations to Expand Communities’ Programs When HIV-AIDS was first recorded in the world, the campaigners portrayed it as a killer disease. This shaped the minds of the people to believe that when one is sick, the next step is death. This is not true as it can be managed. What can be done is to erode that belief through more campaigns to enlighten people (Bebea, 2006).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Communicable Diseases: H. I. V. and A.I.D.s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion HIV-A IDS is an ailment (communicable) that is spread through body fluids from infected individuals. The disease has no cure but can be managed using immune boosting medicines. The infected have a weak body and undergo stigmatization that hinders their productivity. As medicine and immunization are developed, more awareness need to be done to reduce its spread. Reference List Basavapathruni, A and Anderson, K. (December 2007). â€Å"Reverse transcription of the HIV-1 pandemic†.  The FASEB Journal  21  (14): 3795–3808 Bebea, I. (2006). Fighting H.I.V./AIDS; The Balm in Gilead challenges clerics. Network Journal, 13(4), 10. Retrieved from Ethnic NewsWatch (ENW). (Document ID: 1007376031) Brown, T. and Qaqish, R. (2006). Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis: a meta-analytic review.  AIDS (London, England)  20  (17): 2165–2174. Lengauer, T., Altmann, A., Thielen, A. and Kaiser, A. (2010). â€Å"Chasing the AIDS virus† .  Communications of the ACM  53  (3): 66.  doi:10.1145/1666420.1666440 Turner, D. et al. (2005). â€Å"Substitutions in the Reverse Transcriptase and Protease Genes of HIV-1 Subtype B in Untreated Individuals and Patients Treated With Antiretroviral Drugs.† Journal of the International AIDS Society 7 (2005): 69. Academic OneFile. Web. UNAIDS. (2008). Worldwide HIV AIDS Statistic, end of 2008. Retrieved from https://www.avert.org/global-hiv-and-aids-statisticsAdvertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Appendix Global HIV/AIDS estimates, end of 2008 The latest statistics of the global  HIV and AIDS  were published by UNAIDS in November 2009, and refer to the end of 2008. Estimate Range People living with HIV/AIDS in 2008 33.4 million 31.1-35.8 million Adults living with HIV/AIDS in 2008 31.3 million 29.2-33.7 million Women living with HIV/AIDS in 2008 15.7 million 14.2-17.2 million Children living with HIV/AIDS in 2008 2.1 million 1.2-2.9 million People newly infected with HIV in 2008 2.7 million 2.4-3.0 million Children newly infected with HIV in 2008 0.43 million 0.24-0.61 million AIDS deaths in 2008 2.0 million 1.7-2.4 million Child AIDS deaths in 2008 0.28 million 0.15-0.41 million More than  25 million  people have died of AIDS since 1981. Africa has over  14 million  AIDS orphans. At the end of 2008, women accounted for  50%  of all adults living with HIV worldwide In developing and transitional countries,  9.5 million  people are i n immediate need of life-saving AIDS drugs; of these, only  4 million  (42%) are receiving the drugs. Source: http://www.avert.org/worldstats.htm This research paper on Communicable Diseases: H. I. V. and A.I.D.s was written and submitted by user Jaxton Hinton to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Covering Letter Example

Covering Letter Example Covering Letter – Coursework Example Covering letter Insert Insert (Insert (Insert address) (Insert (Insert    To The Human Resource Manager, Hellmann Worldwide Logistics Company,Insert address,CityDear Sir/Madam,RE: COVERING LETTERI am writing to apply to the job position as a supplies manager noting that my education and background is an excellent match to the job description. As an intern supplies manager at (Insert company), I was exposed to coordination of the shipment process dispatch tools, routing, and scheduling with respect to clients demands. Through included designing, handling and implementing supply and bookkeeping involving records. To reflect, I led a team of 15 workers whom I did not accomplished task to the satisfaction of the company. It involved facilitating and collaborating.Having achieved a training session within the company under the counsel of able managers, I hereby feel privileged to undertake the leadership with sober mind and in a position to take up a bigger role with confidence. I am co mpetent in computer skills that include using microsoft suite, Lotus notes and the internet. I have learned adeptness in developing operation dispatch, process planning, logistic analysis, purchasing and production, and routing. In addition, I now handle carriers, vendors, packing facilities and trucking companies with the keenness it requires. I have learned the art of effectively accomplishing transportation associated activities, storage, and distribution endeavors including the delivery of IATA and CASS reports.I learned confidence as a facet to my abilities in handling multiple tasks efficiently, and maintaining confidentiality of highly sensitive codes of information. Moreover, issues that deal with certification and legalization. Rate requests and preparation is what I do best and I have a feeling in line with bringing this expertise to your organization and through delivery and execution of my logical and analytical skills, professionalism and excellent organizational skills consistent with ISO 9001:2008 certification. I will together with teamwork increase customers’ satisfaction and drive economic and regional growth that is achieved by quick and efficient delivery of service.I promise to work towards meeting your institutioal mission by delivering customer needs, through effective communication with clients, managers and fellow workers. Thank you for your review and consideration.Yours faithfully,Insert nameReferencesBly, R. (2004). Websters New World letter writing handbook. Indianapolis: Wiley.Brice, J., & Bligh, J. (2005). Dear Editor ...: advice on writing a covering letter. Med Educ, 39(9), 876-876. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02255.xDonovan, S. (2004). Writing Successful Covering Letters for Unsolicited Submissions to Academic Journals: Comment. Journal Of Scholarly Publishing, 35(4), 221-222. doi:10.3138/jsp.35.4.221Loewen, N., & Lyles, C. (2009). Sincerely yours. Minneapolis, Minn.: Picture Window Books.Payne, M. (2011). Grant writin g demystified. Dubuque, Iowa: McGraw-Hill.

Copyright Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Copyright - Essay Example This system allows the potential sharing of copyrighted materials, which can give rise to copyright infringement. Copyright infringement, under the US laws, is the copying or substantial reproduction of materials that are protected by the copyright law (Miller & Jentz 2007 155). A group of music companies led by A&M Records, Inc. brought an action against Napster for copyright violation, with preliminary injunction, in the District Court for the Northern District of California. In 2000, Judge Marilyn Patel accordingly issued a preliminary injunction against Napster enjoining the latter from â€Å"engaging in or facilitating others in copying, downloading, uploading, transmitting or distributing plaintiff’s copyrighted† (A&M Records, Inc. v Napster, Inc. 2000 114 F Supp. 2d 896) materials. The order was appealed by Napster to the Ninth Circuit, which however, sustained the order but remanding it to the lower court for refinement noting that it was too broad. In reaching its decision, the Ninth Circuit had to decide on the merits of the arguments of the defendants, in defense of itself and its users. The arguments of defendant Napster centered on the implied immunity granted under the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 (AHRA) and the exception provided under the fair use doctrine.

Assesment, evaluation and feedback Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Assesment, evaluation and feedback - Essay Example The essay process can be quiet expensive on time but fulfils all the functions of assessment, on the other hand, seminar presentation is time saving and can fulfill the key functions of assessment even though they do not determine the student’s final grades. There is always the possibility that the assessments do not achieve their purpose, or the suitable method for assessment is being disregarded. Exercise 1 Assessment vs. Evaluation Assessment and evaluation are two terms that in majority cases are used interchangeably to mean the same thing, but in reality both terms do not seriously mean the same thing. Assessment is a classroom inquiry procedure to supply useful feedback in development better teaching and learning. Evaluation on the other hand, is concerned with grading and evaluating students’ degree of understanding, by using various methods and measures. The main difference is the direction of feedback; for assessment feedback is from students to instructor whil e in evaluation, the feedback is from the instructor to students. Assessment has four basic principles; Reliability, Validity, Relevance & transferability, and Criterion vs. Norm referenced assessment. These principles are usually used in various practices/classes of assessment. Assessment is grouped into six classes namely: informal and formal, formal usually involves written documents while informal is more of casual and may include portfolio assessment, rubrics and observations. External and internal, internal usually set and marked by the teachers of the school while external is set by a governing body and marked by unbiased professionals, Traditional assessment, Authentic, Standardized and finally ongoing assessment. Evaluation mainly deals with combined results for the reason of grading appraising and judging. Donald Kirkpatrick is a writer that has with several books talking about training and evaluation. One of his books published in 1959 Evaluating training Programs is bein g used widely across the world. The book’s theory was later updated into the four levels of evaluation (1998). These four essential levels in an evaluation model measure; the students’ reaction towards the training, the learning in terms of capability and knowledge acquired improvement in behavior, and finally the impact of the trainee’s performance on the business. As much as these two techniques; evaluation and assessment, possess different characteristics in the normal setting it would be hard to differentiate them. Exercise 2 There are quite a number of evaluation approaches just to mention a few; public relations, experimental research, testing programs, client centered, content analysis, policy studies, connoisseur and many others. In Aesthetics, we deal with nature and appreciation of art, beauty and taste. The best approach to conduct evaluations in this field is through connoisseur as this approach is characterized by conducting vastly developed profici ency on the subject of interest. It also works towards appraising, decisively describe and illuminate an object. Another appropriate approach in this field is the client centered because in this approach, the students are encouraged to carry their own evaluations. Assessment techniques Classroom

Effects of Green and Blue Light on the Rate of Photosynthesis Lab Report

Effects of Green and Blue Light on the Rate of Photosynthesis - Lab Report Example This essay stresses that since photosynthesis and respiration occur simultaneously, the amount of oxygen generated by the former is cut back by the amount the former consumes. The difference between gross photosynthesis and the amount of oxygen consumed during respiration is referred to as net photosynthesis. This experiment aims to establish the dependence of net photosynthesis on light levels. This paper declares that the first experiment was conducted using the following procedure: Each group cut 10–12 leaf disks from the English Ivy leaves using the paper punch over the weighing paper. This was done to ensure that all the disks are of uniform size. Only those with no tissue damage (jagged edges) were used in the experiment. The next step involved using the syringes to drive out air from the leaf disks. This was done removing the plunger and inserting the disks in the syringe. After this the infiltration solution was added into the syringe up to the 6 ml mark, and the plunger inserted and depressed to remove air. We then covered the tip of the syringe with thumbs and drew the plunger back to create a vacuum for five seconds. The thumb was removed, and the plunger depressed severally until the leaf disks sank. This procedure was repeated to produce four sets of leaf disks for the four replicas of the experiment, hence bringing the sample size to 80. In conducting th e actual experiment, each group added 50 ml of bicarbonate buffer solution into the cylinder and then emptied the infiltration solution and leaf disks from one syringe into the beaker. ... Experiment 1 Materials The materials used in the first experiment were: Leaves (English Ivy) Paper punch Blunt probe Eight 100 ml beakers Bicarbonate solution Infiltration solution 10 ml syringes Cheese cloth Source of light (normal) Stop watches Ruler Calculator Ice bath Blue and green color filters (four of each) Refrigerator Graduate cylinder Weighing paper Method The first experiment was conducted using the following procedure: Each group cut 10–12 leaf disks from the English Ivy leaves using the paper punch over the weighing paper. This was done to ensure that all the disks are of uniform size. Only those with no tissue damage (jagged edges) were used in the experiment. The next step involved using the syringes to drive out air from the leaf disks. This was done removing the plunger and inserting the disks in the syringe. After this the infiltration solution was added into the syringe up to the 6 ml mark, and the plunger inserted and depressed to remove air. We then cover ed the tip of the syringe with thumbs and drew the plunger back to create a vacuum for five seconds. The thumb was removed, and the plunger depressed severally until the leaf disks sank. This procedure was repeated to produce four sets of leaf disks for the four replicas of the experiment, hence bringing the sample size to 80. In conducting the actual experiment, each group added 50 ml of bicarbonate buffer solution into the cylinder and then emptied the infiltration solution and leaf disks from one syringe into the beaker. We then added the rest of the bicarbonate solution into the reaction beaker, discarding leaf disks that did not sink. This was done using 8 beakers, each containing 10

History Of The Virtual Private Network

History Of The Virtual Private Network A VPN supplies virtual network connectivity over a possibly long physical distance. The key feature of a VPN, however, is its ability to use public networks like the Internet rather than rely on private leased lines which consume valuable recourse and extra cost . VPN technologies implement restricted-access networks that utilize the same cabling and routers as a public network, and they do so without sacrificing features or basic security , a simple cooperation office and remote branched VPN shown in below diagram . Sonicwall_Vpn A VPN supports at least three different modes of use as shown above: Remote access client connections. LAN-to-LAN internetworking . Controlled access within an intranet . A several network protocols have become popular as a result of VPN developments state as following : PPTP L2TP IPsec These protocols emphasize authentication and encryption in VPNs. Authentication allows VPN clients and servers to correctly establish the identity of people on the network. Encryption allows potentially sensitive data to be hidden from the general public. Many vendors have developed VPN hardware and/or software products. Unfortunately, immature VPN standards mean that some of these products remain incompatible with each other till now. Virtual private networks have grown in popularity as businesses to save money on remote network access for employees. Many corporations have also adopted VPNs as a security solution for private Wi-Fi wireless networks. Expect a continued gradual expansion in use of VPN technology to continue in the coming years. Objectives:- A virtual private network can resolve many of the issues associated with todays private networks. Cost: The cost of such links is high especially when they involve international locations. Even when VPNs are implemented on a provider private network, it would still be less expensive. Mobility of workforce: Many companies are encouraging telecommunications to reduce their investment in real estate, reduce traffic, and reduce pollution from automobile E-commerce applications: However, in traditional private networks, this kind of special access provision is difficult to incorporate because it is not easy to install dedicated link to all suppliers and business partners, nor it is flexible because a change in the supplier would require de-installing the link and installing another one to the new vendor. Advantages of VPN VPNs promise two main advantages over competing approaches cost savings, and scalability (that is really just a different form of cost savings). The Low Cost of a VPN One way a VPN lowers costs is by eliminating the need for expensive long-distance leased lines. With VPNs, an organization needs only a relatively short dedicated connection to the service provider. This connection could be a local leased line (much less expensive than a long-distance one), or it could be a local broadband connection such as DSL service. Another way VPNs reduce costs is by lessening the need for long-distance telephone charges for remote access. Recall that to provide remote access service, VPN clients need only call into the nearest service providers access point. In some cases this may require a long distance call, but in many cases a local call will suffice. A third, more subtle way that VPNs may lower costs is through offloading of the support burden. With VPNs, the service provider rather than the organization must support dial-up access for example. Service providers can in theory charge much less for their support than it costs a company internally because the public providers cost is shared amongst potentially thousands of customers. Scalability and VPNs The cost to an organization of traditional leased lines may be reasonable at first but can increase exponentially as the organization grows. A company with two branch offices, for example, can deploy just one dedicated line to connect the two locations. If a third branch office needs to come online, just two additional lines will be required to directly connect that location to the other two. However, as an organization grows and more companies must be added to the network, the number of leased lines required increases dramatically. Four branch offices require six lines for full connectivity, five offices require ten lines, and so on. Mathematicans call this phenomenon a combinatorial explosion, and in a traditional WAN this explosion limits the flexibility for growth. VPNs that utilize the Internet avoid this problem by simply tapping into the geographically-distributed access already available. Disadvantages of VPNs With the hype that has surrounded VPNs historically, the potential pitfalls or weak spots in the VPN model can be easy to forget. These four concerns with VPN solutions are often raised. 1. VPNs require an in-depth understanding of public network security issues and proper deployment of precautions. 2. The availability and performance of an organizations wide-area VPN (over the Internet in particular) depends on factors largely outside of their control. 3. VPN technologies from different vendors may not work well together due to immature standards. 4. VPNs need to accomodate protocols other than IP and existing internal network technology. Generally speaking, these four factors comprise the hidden costs of a VPN solution. Whereas VPN advocates tout cost savings as the primary advantage of this technology, detractors cite hidden costs as the primary disadvantage of VPNs INTERNET VPNS FOR REMOTE ACCESS In recent years, many organizations have increased the mobility of their workers by allowing more employees to telecommute. Employees also continue to travel and face a growing need to stay connected to their company networks. A VPN can be set up to support remote, protected access to the corporate home offices over the Internet. An Internet VPN solution uses a client/server design works as follows: 1. A remote host (client) wanting to log into the company network first connects to any public Internet Service Provider (ISP). 2. Next, the host initiates a VPN connection to the company VPN server. This connection is made via a VPN client installed on the remote host. 3. Once the connection has been established, the remote client can communicate with the internal company systems over the Internet just as if it were a local host. Before VPNs, remote workers accessed company networks over private leased lines or through dialup remote access servers. While VPN clients and servers careful require installation of hardware and software, an Internet VPN is a superior solution in many situations. VPNS FOR INTERNETWORKING Besides using virtual private networks for remote access, a VPN can also bridge two networks together. In this mode of operation, an entire remote network (rather than just a single remote client) can join to a different company network to form an extended intranet. This solution uses a VPN server to VPN server connection. Through the use of dedicated equipment and large-scale encryption, a company can connect multiple fixed sites over a public network such as the Internet. Site-to-site VPNs can be one of two types: Intranet-based If a company has one or more remote locations that they wish to join in a single private network, they can create an intranet VPN to connect LAN to LAN. Extranet-based When a company has a close relationship with another company (for example, a partner, supplier or customer), they can build an extranet VPN that connects LAN to LAN, and that allows all of the various companies to work in a shared environment. vpn-type INTRANET / LOCAL NETWORK VPNS Internal networks may also utilize VPN technology to implement controlled access to individual subnets within a private network. In this mode of operation, VPN clients connect to a VPN server that acts as the network gateway. This type of VPN use does not involve an Internet Service Provider (ISP) or public network cabling. However, it allows the security benefits of VPN to be deployed inside an organization. This approach has become especially popular as a way for businesses to protect their WiFi local networks. TUNNELING: SITE-TO-SITE In a site-to-site VPN, GRE (generic routing encapsulation) is normally the encapsulating protocol that provides the framework for how to package the passenger protocol for transport over the carrier protocol, which is typically IP-based. This includes information on what type of packet you are encapsulating and information about the connection between the client and server. Instead of GRE, IPSec in tunnel mode is sometimes used as the encapsulating protocol. IPSec works well on both remote-access and site-to-site VPNs. IPSec must be supported at both tunnel interfaces to use. TUNNELING Most VPNs rely on tunneling to create a private network that reaches across the Internet. Essentially, tunneling is the process of placing an entire packet within another packet and sending it over a network. The protocol of the outer packet is understood by the network and both points, called tunnel interfaces, where the packet enters and exits the network. Tunneling requires three different protocols: Carrier protocol The protocol used by the network that the information is traveling over Encapsulating protocol The protocol (GRE, IPSec, L2F, PPTP, L2TP) that is wrapped around the original data Passenger protocol The original data (IPX, NetBeui, IP) being carried Tunneling has amazing implications for VPNs. For example, you can place a packet that uses a protocol not supported on the Internet (such as NetBeui) inside an IP packet and send it safely over the Internet. Or you could put a packet that uses a private (non-routable) IP address inside a packet that uses a globally unique IP address to extend a private network over the Internet. COST SAVINGS WITH A VPN A VPN can save an organization money in several situations: Eliminating the need for expensive long-distance leased lines Reducing long-distance telephone charges Offloading support costs VPNS VS LEASED LINES Organizations historically needed to rent network capacity such as T1 lines to achieve full, secured connectivity between their office locations. With a VPN, you use public network infrastructure including the Internet to make these connections and tap into that virtual network through much cheaper local leased lines or even just broadband connections to a nearby Internet Service Provider (ISP). LONG DISTANCE PHONE CHARGES A VPN also can replace remote access servers and long-distance dialup network connections commonly used in the past by business travelers needing to access to their company intranet. For example, with an Internet VPN, clients need only connect to the nearest service providers access point that is usually local. SUPPORT COSTS With VPNs, the cost of maintaining servers tends to be less than other approaches because organizations can outsource the needed support from professional third-party service providers. These provides enjoy a much lower cost structure through economy of scale by servicing many business clients. VPN NETWORK SCALABILITY The cost to an organization of building a dedicated private network may be reasonable at first but increases exponentially as the organization grows. A company with two branch offices, for example, can deploy just one dedicated line to connect the two locations, but 4 branch offices require 6 lines to directly connect them to each other, 6 branch offices need 15 lines, and so on. Internet based VPNs avoid this scalability problem by simply tapping into the public lines and network capability readily available. Particularly for remote and international locations, an Internet VPN offers superior reach and quality of service. USING A VPN To use a VPN, each client must possess the appropriate networking software or hardware support on their local network and computers. When set up properly, VPN solutions are easy to use and sometimes can be made to work automatically as part of network sign on. VPN technology also works well with WiFi local area networking. Some organizations use VPNs to secure wireless connections to their local access points when working inside the office. These solutions provide strong protection without affecting performance excessively. VPN SECURITY: IPSEC Internet Protocol Security Protocol (IPSec) provides enhanced security features such as better encryption algorithms and more comprehensive authentication. vpn-diagram2 Photo courtesy Cisco Systems, Inc. A remote-access VPN utilizing IPSec IPSec has two encryption modes: tunnel and transport. Tunnel encrypts the header and the payload of each packet while transport only encrypts the payload. Only systems that are IPSec compliant can take advantage of this protocol. Also, all devices must use a common key and the firewalls of each network must have very similar security policies set up. IPSec can encrypt data between various devices, such as: Router to router Firewall to router PC to router PC to server LIMITATIONS OF A VPN Despite their popularity, VPNs are not perfect and limitations exist as is true for any technology. Organizations should consider issues like the below when deploying and using virtual private networks in their operations: VPNs require detailed understanding of network security issues and careful installation / configuration to ensure sufficient protection on a public network like the Internet. The reliability and performance of an Internet-based VPN is not under an organizations direct control. Instead, the solution relies on an ISP and their quality of service. Historically, VPN products and solutions from different vendors have not always been compatible due to issues with VPN technology standards. Attempting to mix and match equipment may cause technical problems, and using equipment from one provider may not give as great a cost savings. TYPES OF VPN TUNNELING VPN supports two types of tunneling voluntary and compulsory. Both types of tunneling are commonly used. In voluntary tunneling, the VPN client manages connection setup. The client first makes a connection to the carrier network provider (an ISP in the case of Internet VPNs). Then, the VPN client application creates the tunnel to a VPN server over this live connection. In compulsory tunneling, the carrier network provider manages VPN connection setup. When the client first makes an ordinary connection to the carrier, the carrier in turn immediately brokers a VPN connection between that client and a VPN server. From the client point of view, VPN connections are set up in just one step compared to the two-step procedure required for voluntary tunnels. Compulsory VPN tunneling authenticates clients and associates them with specific VPN servers using logic built into the broker device. This network device is sometimes called the VPN Front End Processor (FEP), Network Access Server (NAS) or Point of Presence Server (POS). Compulsory tunneling hides the details of VPN server connectivity from the VPN clients and effectively transfers management control over the tunnels from clients to the ISP. In return, service providers must take on the additional burden of installing and maintaining FEP devices. VPN TUNNELING PROTOCOLS Several computer network protocols have been implemented specifically for use with VPN tunnels. The three most popular VPN tunneling protocols listed below continue to compete with each other for acceptance in the industry. These protocols are generally incompatible with each other. POINT-TO-POINT TUNNELING PROTOCOL (PPTP) Several corporations worked together to create the PPTP specification. People generally associate PPTP with Microsoft because nearly all flavors of Windows include built-in client support for this protocol. The initial releases of PPTP for Windows by Microsoft contained security features that some experts claimed were too weak for serious use. Microsoft continues to improve its PPTP support, though. LAYER TWO TUNNELING PROTOCOL (L2TP) The original competitor to PPTP for VPN tunneling was L2F, a protocol implemented primarily in Cisco products. In an attempt to improve on L2F, the best features of it and PPTP were combined to create new standard called L2TP. Like PPTP, L2TP exists at the data link layer (Layer Two) in the OSI model thus the origin of its name. INTERNET PROTOCOL SECURITY (IPSEC) IPsec is actually a collection of multiple related protocols. It can be used as a complete VPN protocol solution, or it can used simply as the encryption scheme within L2TP or PPTP. IPsec exists at the network layer (Layer Three) of the OSI model. Using PPTP PPTP packages data within PPP packets, then encapsulates the PPP packets within IP packets (datagrams) for transmission through an Internet-based VPN tunnel. PPTP supports data encryption and compression of these packets. PPTP also uses a form of General Routing Encapsulation (GRE) to get data to and from its final destination. PPTP-based Internet remote access VPNs are by far the most common form of PPTP VPN. In this environment, VPN tunnels are created via the following two-step process: The PPTP client connects to their ISP using PPP dial-up networking (traditional modem or ISDN). Via the broker device (described earlier), PPTP creates a TCP control connection between the VPN client and VPN server to establish a tunnel. PPTP uses TCP port 1723 for these connections. PPTP also supports VPN connectivity via a LAN. ISP connections are not required in this case, so tunnels can be created directly as in Step 2 above. Once the VPN tunnel is established, PPTP supports two types of information flow: Control messages for managing and eventually tearing down the VPN connection. Control messages pass directly between VPN client and server. Data packets that pass through the tunnel, to or from the VPN client PPTP CONTROL CONNECTION Once the TCP connection is established in Step 2 above, PPTP utliizes a series of control messages to maintain VPN connections. These messages are listed below. No. Name Description 1 StartControlConnectionRequest Initiates setup of the VPN session; can be sent by either client or server. 2 StartControlConnectionReply Sent in reply to the start connection request (1); contains result code indicating success or failure of the setup operation, and also the protocol version number. 3 StopControlConnectionRequest Request to close the control connection. 4 StopControlConnectionReply Sent in reply to the stop connection request (3); contains result code indicating success or failure of the close operation. 5 EchoRequest Sent periodically by either client or server to ping the connection (keep alive). 6 EchoReply Sent in response to the echo request (5) to keep the connection active. 7 OutgoingCallRequest Request to create a VPN tunnel sent by the client. 8 OutgoingCallReply Response to the call request (7); contains a unique identifier for that tunnel. 9 IncomingCallRequest Request from a VPN client to receive an incoming call from the server. 10 IncomingCallReply Response to the incoming call request (9), indicating whether the incoming call should be answered. 11 IncomingCallConnected Response to the incoming call reply (10); provides additional call parameters to the VPN server. 12 CallClearRequest Request to disconnect either an incoming or outgoing call, sent from the server to a client. 13 CallDisconnectNotify Response to the disconnect request (12); sent back to the server. 14 WANErrorNotify Notification periodically sent to the server of CRC, framing, hardware and buffer overruns, timeout and byte alignment errors. 15 SetLinkInfo Notification of changes in the underlying PPP options. With control messages, PPTP utlizes a so-called magic cookie. The PPTP magic cookie is hardwired to the hexadecimal number 0x1A2B3C4D. The purpose of this cookie is to ensure the receiver interprets the incoming data on the correct byte boundaries. PPTP SECURITY PPTP supports authentication, encryption, and packet filtering. PPTP authentication uses PPP-based protocols like EAP, CHAP, and PAP. PPTP supports packet filtering on VPN servers. Intermediate routers and other firewalls can also be configured to selectively filter PPTP traffic. PPTP AND PPP In general, PPTP relies on the functionality of PPP for these aspects of virtual private networking. authenticating users and maintaining the remote dial-up connection encapsulating and encrypting IP, IPX, or NetBEUI packets PPTP directly handles maintaining the VPN tunnel and transmitting data through the tunnel. PPTP also supports some additional security features for VPN data beyond what PPP provides. PPTP PROS AND CONS PPTP remains a popular choice for VPNs thanks to Microsoft. PPTP clients are freely available in all popular versions of Microsoft Windows. Windows servers also can function as PPTP-based VPN servers. One drawback of PPTP is its failure to choose a single standard for authentication and encryption. Two products that both fully comply with the PPTP specification may be totally incompatible with each other if they encrypt data differently, for example. Concerns also persist over the questionable level of security PPTP provides compared to alternatives. Routing Tunneling protocols can be used in a point-to-point topology that would generally not be considered a VPN, because a VPN is expected to support arbitrary and changing sets of network nodes. Since most router implementations support software-defined tunnel interface, customer-provisioned VPNs often comprise simply a set of tunnels over which conventional routing protocols run. PPVPNs, however, need to support the coexistence of multiple VPNs, hidden from one another, but operated by the same service provider. Building blocks Depending on whether the PPVPN runs in layer 2 or layer 3, the building blocks described below may be L2 only, L3 only, or combinations of the two. Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) functionality blurs the L2-L3 identity. While RFC 4026 generalized these terms to cover L2 and L3 VPNs, they were introduced in RFC 2547. Customer edge device. (CE) In general, a CE is a device, physically at the customer premises, that provides access to the PPVPN service. Some implementations treat it purely as a demarcation point between provider and customer responsibility, while others allow customers to configure it. Provider edge device (PE) A PE is a device or set of devices, at the edge of the provider network, which provides the providers view of the customer site. PEs are aware of the VPNs that connect through them, and which maintain VPN state. Provider device (P) A P device operates inside the providers core network, and does not directly interface to any customer endpoint. It might, for example, provide routing for many provider-operated tunnels that belong to different customers PPVPNs. While the P device is a key part of implementing PPVPNs, it is not itself VPN-aware and does not maintain VPN state. Its principal role is allowing the service provider to scale its PPVPN offerings, as, for example, by acting as an aggregation point for multiple PEs. P-to-P connections, in such a role, often are high-capacity optical links between major locations of provider. Categorizing VPN security models From the security standpoint, VPNs either trust the underlying delivery network, or must enforce security with mechanisms in the VPN itself. Unless the trusted delivery network runs only among physically secure sites, both trusted and secure models need an authentication mechanism for users to gain access to the VPN. Some Internet service providers as of 2009[update] offer managed VPN service for business customers who want the security and convenience of a VPN but prefer not to undertake administering a VPN server themselves. Managed VPNs go beyond PPVPN scope, and are a contracted security solution that can reach into hosts. In addition to providing remote workers with secure access to their employers internal network, other security and management services are sometimes included as part of the package. Examples include keeping anti-virus and anti-spyware programs updated on each clients computer. Authentication before VPN connection A known trusted user, sometimes only when using trusted devices, can be provided with appropriate security privileges to access resources not available to general users. Servers may also need to authenticate themselves to join the VPN. A wide variety of authentication mechanisms exist. VPNs may implement authentication in devices including firewalls, access gateways, and others. They may use passwords, biometrics, or cryptographic methods. Strong authentication involves combining cryptography with another authentication mechanism. The authentication mechanism may require explicit user action, or may be embedded in the VPN client or the workstation. Trusted delivery networks Trusted VPNs do not use cryptographic tunneling, and instead rely on the security of a single providers network to protect the traffic. In a sense, they elaborate on traditional network- and system-administration work. Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is often used to overlay VPNs, often with quality-of-service control over a trusted delivery network. Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) which is a standards-based replacement, and a compromise taking the good features from each, for two proprietary VPN protocols: Ciscos Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) (obsolete as of 2009[update]) and Microsofts Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP). Security mechanisms Secure VPNs use cryptographic tunneling protocols to provide the intended confidentiality (blocking intercept and thus packet sniffing), sender authentication (blocking identity spoofing), and message integrity (blocking message alteration) to achieve privacy. Secure VPN protocols include the following: IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) A standards-based security protocol developed originally for IPv6, where support is mandatory, but also widely used with IPv4. Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS) is used either for tunneling an entire networks traffic (SSL VPN), as in the OpenVPN project, or for securing individual connection. SSL has been the foundation by a number of vendors to provide remote access VPN capabilities. A practical advantage of an SSL VPN is that it can be accessed from locations that restrict external access to SSL-based e-commerce websites without IPsec implementations. SSL-based VPNs may be vulnerable to Denial of Service attacks mounted against their TCP connections because latter are inherently unauthenticated. DTLS, used by Cisco for a next generation VPN product called Cisco AnyConnect VPN. DTLS solves the issues found when tunneling TCP over TCP as is the case with SSL/TLS Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP) by Microsoft introduced in Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista Service Pack 1. SSTP tunnels Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or L2TP traffic through an SSL 3.0 channel. L2TPv3 (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol version 3), a new[update] release. MPVPN (Multi Path Virtual Private Network). Ragula Systems Development Company owns the registered trademark MPVPN. Cisco VPN, a proprietary VPN used by many Cisco hardware devices. Proprietary clients exist for all platforms; open-source clients also exist. SSH VPN OpenSSH offers VPN tunneling to secure remote connections to a network (or inter-network links). This feature (option -w) should not be confused with port forwarding (option -L). OpenSSH server provides limited number of concurrent tunnels and the VPN feature itself does not support personal authentication. VPNs in mobile environments Mobile VPNs handle the special circumstances when one endpoint of the VPN is not fixed to a single IP address, but instead roams across various networks such as data networks from cellular carriers or between multiple Wi-Fi access points. Mobile VPNs have been widely used in public safety, where they give law enforcement officers access to mission-critical applications, such as computer-assisted dispatch and criminal databases, as they travel between different subnets of a mobile network. They are also used in field service management and by healthcare organizations, among other industries. Increasingly, Mobile VPNs are being adopted by mobile professionals and white-collar workers who need reliable connections. They allow users to roam seamlessly across networks and in and out of wireless-coverage areas without losing application sessions or dropping the secure VPN session. A conventional VPN cannot survive such events because the network tunnel is disrupted, causing applications to disconnect, time out, fail, or even the computing device itself to crash. Instead of logically tying the endpoint of the network tunnel to the physical IP address, each tunnel is bound to a virtual IP address that stays with the device. The Mobile VPN software handles the necessary network logins and maintains the application sessions in a manner transparent to the user. The Host Identity Protocol (HIP), under study by the Internet Engineering Task Force, is designed to support mobility of hosts by separating the role of IP addresses for host identification from their locator functionality in an IP network. With HIP a mobile host maintains its logical connections established via the host identity identifier while associating with different IP addresses when roaming between access networks. Conclusion: So what is a Virtual Private Network? As we have discussed, a VPN can take several forms. A VPN can be between two end-systems, or it can be between two or more networks. A VPN can be built using tunnels or encryption (at essentially any layer of the protocol stack), or both, or alternatively constructed using MPLS or one of the virtual router methods. A VPN can consist of networks connected to a service providers network by leased lines, Frame Relay, or ATM, or a VPN can consist of dial-up subscribers connecting to central

The Germanic and Celtic Tradition by George MacDonald :: Germanic Celtin Macdonald Fairytales Essays

The Germanic and Celtic Tradition by George MacDonald One of the most interesting things about fairytales is how the author has borrowed ideas from ancient myths and legends and kept them alive in their writings. The Princess and the Goblin is one of these fairytales. In writing this novel, George MacDonald has incorporated much of the folk tradition in his characters and plot. Specifically, his concept of goblins seem to be drawn from the tradition of dwarfs, gnomes, and kobolds of Germanic myth and the fairies, or elves, of Celtic myth. In accordance with the Celtic and Germanic traditions, the goblins of The Princess and the Goblin dwell inside mountains, away from sunlight and especially away from those who live on the earth's surface. The Celtic story of the Green Children tells of two children who, after accidentally wandering up to the surface, had fainted under the sheer brightness of the sunlight (Curran, 129). The Germanic dwarfs only dared to venture out to the surface after nightfall, because the sunlight would turn them into stone (Kafton-Minkel, 34). Although MacDonald's goblins would not encounter the same fate as the Germanic dwarfs if they were to surface during the day, they do detest the brightness of the sun, and prefer to remain underground, surfacing infrequently and only at night (4, 61). The goblins' irregular, grotesque features are most likely a consequence of their subterranean habitat. The once humans "had greatly altered in the course of generations" (MacDonald, 4) and very much resemble t he dwarfs and other mine spirits of the folk tradition. Due to the lack of sunshine and unbalanced diet, MacDonald's goblins are short and "ludicrously grotesque in face and form" (4). Their long arms, nail-less hands, and toeless feet are only some examples of their deformations. However, because of their work, digging out precious stones, tunnelling through the mountainous rock, and living hard lives in their rough and crude cavern homes (Kafton-Minkel, 35), dwarfs and goblins are not weak, but broad, stocky, and unbelievably strong. Dwarfs are known to be "stronger, craftier, and more skilful than humans" (Kafton-Minkel, 34), and this characteristic is also attributed to the goblins in The Princess and the Goblin; although the goblin queen was surrounded by "such skilful workmen" (MacDonald, 207), she still hadn't had a replacement shoe made. Those are not the only similarities between MacDonald's goblins and the subterranean creatures of the folk tradition.

Behavioral scientists Essay

Gang violence is a social phenomenon that has caught the interests of behavioral scientists, psychologists and other related fields. At the forefront is the fact that gangs are social groups that have exclusive rules and strict codes of brotherhood which can actually provide the need for belongingness and affiliation as well as security in the harsh life in the city streets. Surprisingly, gangs have been associated with violence for the longest time, the term gang is already perceived as negative and that at present, gang is synonymous to violence, criminal acts and substance abuse. People join gangs for various reasons but it has been found that adolescents who have been victims of abuse, have dysfunctional family systems, school drop-outs and those in foster care generally join gangs more than the normal teenager. Thus, the final project is geared towards bringing about behavior change for adolescents at risk of joining gangs and or has a tendency for violence. Before drawing up a concrete behavior change program, it is important to examine how this could be brought about by factors like motivation and cultural awareness. Motivating people to change is not an easy feat, generally, if a person is set in his/her ways, then asking them to change something that they do not perceive to be evil or negative is a futile act. Central to the concept of motivation is that the goal offered to the individual must be meaningful to him/her, one that is personally desired and can be owned as a personal decision. This is where choice comes in, when a person is confronted with a choice; his/her reaction to it depends on their circumstances and present state of mind (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999). In this context, choosing to change their behavior should come from their internal desire to change, to become better and to be removed from their present difficulties. For example, if the behavior that is targeted to be modified is expressions of anger, it makes sense to the person to change this if he/she can realize that his/her actions hurt other people and that it also causes people to avoid them and hence lead to feelings of isolation and loneliness. Gangs are often formed around cultural groups, that is one gang can be comprised of Latinos, others are blacks, and others Asians and or whites. Thus, a program for behavior change should also consider the different cultural underpinnings of the gang and its members, if the gang is made up of black Americans, then asking them to join a program geared towards changing them, might be construed as culturally motivated, they have to be changed because they are blacks. There is much emotionality when it comes to culturally specific gangs and it cannot be denied that emotion may get in the way of participating in a program that is designed to change them (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) Motivation is also said to be affected by culture, one has to be able to correctly identify the cultural background of the gang or the participants of the project so as to provide a more culturally relevant and sensitive program. Lastly, motivation can be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic, it has been generally accepted that intrinsic motivation is more positive, more important and influential than extrinsic motivation thus the behavior change program should appeal to the intrinsic motivation of the participants. Intrinsic motivation is the feelings and behavior that drives the person to act in a certain way or to commit to a behavior change program. Internal means that it is something personal and valued by the person, it can be the desire for self-awareness, confidence and achievement, whereas extrinsic motivations are physical and tangible like prestige, money and awards (Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000). The behavior change program should be designed to spark the intrinsic motivation of the participants, thus conducting an orientation seminar will introduce the participant to the program and letting them experience how good it is to be able to know who they are, to know that they mattered and someone cared for them would facilitate rapport and trust between the researcher and the participant. If the concepts of choice, culture and motivation will be adequately examined and integrated into the planned program, then surely the project would be a success. References Iyengar, S. & Lepper, M. (1999). Rethinking the role of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 349-366. Markus, H. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. Sansone, C. & Harackiewicz, J. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance. San Diego: Academic Press.

AP Biology Essays

AP Biology Essays AP Biology Essays AP Biology Essays While AP biology essays writing is different from other academic assignments; there are several rules common for all essays.   For example, AP biology essays should follow the standard format including abstract, outline, introduction, background, analysis, discussion, and conclusion.   Read the following short sample of AP biology essay and pay attention to the structure of paragraphs. More samples can be read in our free writing guide. If you need help with writing your AP biology essays, do not hesitate to request our writing assistance. writers will write a perfect AP biology essay for you from scratch and in accordance to the instructions. AP Biology Essay Sample Any investigation relating to natural beings needs some way of distinguishing each one of them in such a manner as to avoid confusion with the countless others which Dame Nature brings to our notice. Natural History ought therefore to possess as a basic tool some "Natural System" or comprehensive list containing an agreed name for every single being, thus enabling it to be identified by reference to its distinctive features. As no living organism is entirely simple in its character, it is insufficient to try to distinguish it merely by one single feature of its make-up. We must therefore, nearly always, rely on a combination of several distinct features if we wish to differentiate any particular individual from its fellows, which latter may in part, if not entirely, through their very similarity show traits pertaining to the first specimen. In a like manner, such original sample may present characters common to itself as well as to all the others and will then be distinguishable only through those features not possessed by the remainder. Some beings are very closely related to one another in the biological sense and possess many characters in common, whilst others show far less a degree of similarity in detail. The larger the quantity of beings requiring identification, the greater the number of characters will it be necessary to take into consideration, even perhaps down to the point of making a complete and exhaustive specification of every single detail of the living form. This state of affairs necessitates the setting-up of divisions and subdivisions. As mentioned above, some individuals will show a large number of features in common, and may then be grouped together as a genus, wherein differences in detail are slight. The genera will then have to be classified and, repeating the operation, closely related genera will be combined to form an order. Similarly, orders related in rank will form a class. All this implies some framework and method, and nothing could be more suitable than the "Natural Method," that is to say, an arrangement showing us how individual members of one particular genus are more like each other than to members of other genera, and how the genera of a particular order are more alike to each other than to those of other orders, and so on. This is the system towards which Natural History must necessarily tend, since obviously if an exact system of classification can be attained, the complete portrayal of Nature will have been achieved. AP Biology Essay Writing Service Writing AP biology essays is not easy because you have to be able to put your thoughts on the paper and possess sufficient understanding of the topic. Biology is a science and, therefore, you should adapt scientific approach to writing AP biology essays.   If you do not want to spend hours researching and reading, you have a perfect opportunity to get a custom written AP biology essay.   Contact us and we will write your AP biology essay within any deadline of your choice! No plagiarism! Custom written essays and papers are free of plagiarism and meet your requirements.

buy custom Health Care Issues and Cultural Effects essay

buy custom Health Care Issues and Cultural Effects essay Research on to the health disparities has shown that, patients who receive culturally sensitive care show an increased adherence to medical advice and report higher satisfaction with the services. Therefore, with the increased growth in the cultural diversity and related health disparities in society, the rise in academic interest in examining the interrelationship between health and culture has also increased. This has led to the realization of the benefits of cultural competency program. The cultural competency training program produces measurable changes in the knowledge and skills of the health practitioners (Khanna, Cheyney, Engle, 2009, p. 886). Although the debate still continues on its effectiveness, a general agreement among the scholars is that, it improves the patient-provider communication, and in the long term, it improves on the patient satisfaction and compliance. This has led to many health care organizations, medical schools and providers integrating the cultural competency training into their training programs or curricula. In one study conducted on the 43 healthcare professionals, participants indicated an enhanced understanding of the healthcare experiences of patients with diverse backgrounds. This study involved health care providers and health administrators for a four (4) hour cultural competency workshop. In addition to the enhanced understanding of health care experiences these health care professionals, reported improvement in their cross-cu ltural working skills (Khanna, Cheyney, Engle, 2009, p. 886). According to them, the post then pre method of evaluation used is reliable, innovative, and time-saving. According to them, these training programs should be implemented so as to inform the health care providers on the role of culture in service delivery. Factors like, ethnic medical belefs, use of folk medicine, health beliefs and worldview, cultural values and norms influence the offering and perception of the services. In addition, gender and religion also play a vital role. The Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) advocates for the inclusion of the cultural and linguistic competency training and assessment protocols in health care systems (Khanna, Cheyney, Engle, 2009, p. 887). The Office of Minority Health has been on the forefront in advocating for the National Standards for culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services (CLAS) in the Health Care Systems. These standards take into account the social context and interaction and thus, form the benchmarks in the provision of the competent services to patients from all cultural backgrounds. This arises from the fac t that, the cultural characteristics of the patient and the health care provider influences the manner in which different people seek, access, and utilize these services (Khanna, Cheyney, Engle, 2009, pp. 887-888). The study used post then pre method to evaluate the outcomes of the training. In a typical pre then post evaluation, participants subject themselves to a set of questions before and after the training program. Post then pre method helps in controlling response shift bias got in the traditional pre then post method. In the post then pre method, gauging of the respondents perceptions occur at the end of training. This reduces the respondents perspective on the construct measured between pre-test and post-test situation. In addition, use of the post then pre reduces the problems of over and ideal reporting associated with pre then post reporting (Khanna, Cheyney, Engle, 2009, p. 889). The limitation of this evaluation method is the inability recall knowledge and skills before the instruction accurately. The social desire of the respondents to fulffill the expectations of the training programs also manifests itself among the respondents. At the end of training, all participants had a ch oice of completing a 29-item Cultural Competency Assessment (CCA). Of the sixty that had originally joined the training, only forty-three (n=43) completed the test without errors. The CCA developed reflected on intercultural and intra-cultural diversity. It involved 3 parts- demographic data (5 items), knowledge (19 items) and skills (5 items). The results indicated that the participants indicated a positive change in their knowledge and skills in the cross-cultural provision of health care. They acquired a more nuanced understanding of individual terms associated with culture, race and ethnicity. They also self-reported improvements in the role of cultural factors in the patient-provider communication, and importance of nonverbal clues in patient-provider interaction. These results indicated the need to raise awareness regarding the importance of cultural learning. The health beliefs and cultural healing practices involvement in the collection of the case histories are essential. This helps in the conducting of the clinical examinations and development of culturally based care plans with the patients from diverse cultural backgrounds (Khanna, Cheyney, Engle, 2009, p. 890). This study indicated that, for cultural competency to be successful, it needs to go beyond the racial and ethnic differences. It should incorporate issues pertaining to sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, health insurance status and type/ timing of care in the provision of health care services. It is also a dynamic process rather than 1-time, structured training endeavor lending itself to rigorous, quantitative analysis. It should be expanded to include multiple markers of differences (Khanna, Cheyney, Engle, 2009, p. 891). Buy custom Health Care Issues and Cultural Effects essay

Printmaking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Printmaking - Essay Example This painting shows a variety of things and affects the reader’s emotion in a variety of ways. The ability of the painter to incorporate simplicity and complexity all at once, or peace and hostility simultaneously, movement and stillness in the same piece make this piece highly admirable and equally impressive.The painter merely used paper and charcoal as opposed to using other preferable and durable media. Thirdly, the piece is also highly inspirational since it connects the audience with the emotions of the painter. Viewing such a painting, one would argue that the painter was in a state of emotional confusion, or experience mixed feelings with a deep urge to be at peace. As such, the depiction of the painting using diverse emotions and a key purpose in mind presented just the perfect piece of work. As such, the most intriguing aspect of the printmaking project by Nelligan is the fact that the painting is a metaphorical oxymoron. The depiction of two sides of an emotion in t he same picture, two opposing themes and two opposing features of a painting is the key reason that this painting is the perfect selection. The simplicity holds in it, from the media to the subject or overall theme of the painting is also admirable. The painter focused on a set of values and this thus shows a significant aspect about the exceptionality of the painter, a feature that any printmaker or painter would love to possess as a skill set. As such, the selection of this piece is based on one main conclusion; it is spectacular.

Debate outline Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Debate outline - Research Paper Example The ethical dilemma for the medical profession and the family of the afflicted individual give rise to ongoing debates. Both sides present strong arguments for their side. II. Facts for Pro and Con side a. Pro side-Seven facts to support the Pro side of the debate In more ways, the aging group is more susceptible to developing clinical conditions that require extensive hospitalization, as most present protracted medical status; however, the exact pathophysiological path towards worsening condition remained indefinable (Kaufman, 2009). As such, clinical practitioners may try a number of treatment procedures with vague clinical presentation, possibly even during critical times in patient status, but these measures may remain in futile attempts as they do not target the exact cause of geriatric condition. In most cases, the education and vast clinical experiences that health professionals have acquired in academic and clinical settings do not assure that they are no longer liable to mak e clinical errors, especially on the side of the â€Å"omnipotent† physicians in predicting the outcomes of patients’ condition and course of disease process.

Interpersonal relationships communication concepts and terms related Research Paper

Interpersonal relationships communication concepts and terms related to the movie 40 year old virgin - Research Paper Example According to Judy Pearson, self-disclosure is â€Å"the process of making intentional revelations about oneself that others would be unlikely to know.† Andy is a very private person: he tells the few friends he has from work very little about himself. Although he is forty years old, he has spent very little time cultivating meaningful friendships. Because of his lack of interpersonal relationships, he has not developed a greater understanding of himself. Pearson claims that self-disclosure increases directly as intimacy increases. Another hindrance in his personal growth is the fact that he is a virgin. Because his intimacy with another human being has not reached the point of sexual intercourse, his personal growth has also been hindered. The first stage of Andy and Trish’s new relationship is called relational development. There are five aspects to this development: initiating, experimenting, intensifying, integrating, and bonding. In the first stage of their relational development, Andy realizes he is attracted to Trish. Physical attraction is usually an important part of the initiating stage. The second stage of their relationship is the experimentation stage. This occurs during their date. They hit it off by finding many things they have in common with each other. In the third stage, the intensifying stage, Andy and Trish attempt to have sex and are interrupted by Trish’s teenage daughter. In a humorous misunderstanding on their first date, Andy reluctantly agrees to wait until their twentieth date to have sex with Trish. The intensifying stage of their relationship is the longest of the movie. They get to know each other much better while still not solidifying their relationship. The fourth stage o f integration occurs after Andy and Trish’s misunderstanding. Trish catches an inebriated Andy in bed with another woman, but he is able to explain that it was a misunderstanding. In the final stage of

Sample SWOT analysis Essay Example for Free

Sample SWOT analysis Essay SWOT analysis shows strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. This sample SWOT analysis for David Jones can provide a competitive advantage. Strengths Real Estate is A Strength of David Jones(Has over 200 retail stores in France and Luxembourg)- David Jones Unique Products David Jones Brand Name David Jones(since 1838 ) Domestic Market Store locations as Low risk and high value locations Weaknesses -competitive market (Mayer .Woolworths. Coles Group .Wesfarmers) -investments in research and development Limited global penetration Opportunities -income level is at a constant increase -venture capital -new products and services -new acquisitions -growing demand Threats -global economy -tax changes -unexpected problems -growing competition and lower profitability SWOT Analysis Strength 1.Strong domestic presence in Australian market in fashion, electricity and food products 2. Variety of products offered 3.Store locations as Low risk and high value locations 4. Has over 200 retail stores in France and Luxembourg Weakness 1. Due to many options available, brand switching is high and low brand loyalty 2. Limited global penetration Opportunity 1. Entering into pharmaceutical business 2. Leveraging on brand name David Jones to enter into other product line extension Threats 1.Increasing domestic competition as new brands coming constantly 2. High brand switching by customers means limited brand loyalty

Pharmacist Role In Developing Countries Health And Social Care Essay

Pharmacist Role In Developing Countries Health And Social Care Essay Introduction: Since last decades despite tremendous advancements in medical technology, the global health status needs to be revamped. The commitment of the majority of World Health Organization (WHO) member countries to the Declaration of Alma-Ata in 1978 advocates the concept of health for all. Unfortunately the fundamental doctrine of the declaration is failed to be reaffirmed by some of the developing countries.1 The developing nations harbor 80% of the worlds population and it been estimated that 2.7 billion people living in this part of the world thrive on less than US$2 a day.2,3,4 This, in turn, contributed to lack of access to efficient healthcare services among these populations. Moreover, in most of these developing countries, the deliveries of effective healthcare services are compromised due to incompetent and non-qualified healthcare providers. Apart from the need to understand the pathophysiology of disease and their treatment modalities, healthcare providers necessitate to comprehend the local environment or/and culture in order to achieve the desired therapeutic outcomes. Therefore, the reorientation and reconstruction of healthcare professionals education and training to generate socially motivated healthcare providers is the need of time. Pharmacist role in developing countries: In the beginning of the 6th century BC, humans started a several-centuries-process of compiling pharmacological knowledge that contributed towards public health.5 The scope of pharmacy practice encompasses areas of compounding and dispensing medications, services related to patient care including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information. Generally, the existing medical education system produces professionals which have a tendency towards clinical practice or either specialization. Preference is more towards treatment rather than prophylaxis. Moreover, professional training emphasized on subject-centered curriculum linked with high technology and therefore, trainees come in contact with patients usually at the end of the training. As a result, the role of pharmacists in healthcare system is generally bleak, but perhaps more so in developing and transitional economies. Still in some places pharmacists are increasingly assuming their role as health care workers. Their services include more patient-oriented, administrative and public health functions. This successful transition in pharmacy practice is the result of the implementation of educational programs aimed at making them responsive to the needs of the majority of the population6. In the context of developing countries, pharmacy profession only captured the imagination of only a small segment of the population as a vibrant healthcare profession. For instance, although HIV/AIDS is rampantly prevalent in many developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America, still pharmacist in these countries is underutilized as healthcare workforce in prophylactic campaigns. Furthermore, issues of public health dimensions that need collective action via intensive efforts of pharmacists and other healthcare team members are nearly non-existent in developing countries. This might be due to the fact that both public and other healthcare practitioners perceived that pharmacists are not well positioned to take such an active role in public health initiatives that are generally considered to be the domains of doctors and nurses preferably7. Lately, with the tremendous evolution of pharmacy practice in developed nations such as the UK, Australia and US, it thus becomes evident that pharmacists can contribute more towards Health for All agenda. Furthermore, there has been a great move by health policy makers and educators in developing skills and attitudes which are necessary to meet the healthcare needs of the majority of the people. This change has also influenced many developing countries to follow the trend. Therefore, within the last two decades extensive transitions had been observed in pharmacy curricula globally, mainly with the incorporation of social and behavioral sciences at many pharmacy schools Although a complete discussion linking social sciences with pharmacy is not possible in a single document, we try to provide a brief historical background on social pharmacy and pharmacy practice as well as the importance of social sciences in health. In the current document the authors discuss few case studies from developed countries which establish the relevant link of social and behavioral sciences to pharmacy curricula and, therefore, the importance of social sciences in pharmacy curriculum can thus be ascertained. The authors will also enumerate the achievements of the Universiti Sains Malaysia in incorporating social pharmacy subjects in undergraduate pharmacy education. Recent history of social sciences and pharmacy education: Since the early 1980s, efforts were undertaken to find out which areas of pharmacy practice can greatly contribute in pharmacy training. Among many recommendations, an independent committee of inquiry established under the aegis of the Nuffield Foundation advocated that social and behavioral science should be incorporated into the pharmacy undergraduate curriculum. Defined as the scientific study of human behavior, behavioral science is often associated with disciplines which deal with people and society including psychology, sociology and anthropology. Sociology studies an individuals actions as a social phenomenon, whereas behavior is explained and shaped by the society in which we evolve; reason for which, sociologists prefer to use the term social action in place of behavior. Behavioral science also includes social psychology and interpersonal communication. According to Morrall,8 the discipline of sociology demystifies the nature of health and illness, determines the social causes of disease and death, exposes power-factors and ethical dilemmas in the production of health care, and either directly or indirectly helps to create a discerning practitioner capable of more focused and competent decision making. Such a sociologically informed approach to health care is basically needed by all health workers including pharmacists. Due to this importance, institutions such as the schools of pharmacy and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain suggested that aspects of sociology should be incorporated into the pharmacy undergr aduate curriculum for adequately preparing pharmacy students for their future practice. In a related opinion, the Royal Pharmaceutical Societys Education Committee advocated that all schools of pharmacy in their undergraduate programs should include teaching on the social science aspects of pharmacy.9 Why sociology for pharmacists? : Inadequacies and disparities in health care systems are still a major threat to global public health. In response to this, the last decades had witnessed an increasing number of changes in the activities of pharmacists. In primary care activities compounding and formulation of medicines are not practiced anymore. As technological progresses have made the dispensing of medicines a more routine task, how much time pharmacists spend on this activity is questioned. In addition, the number of highly effective proprietary medicines available for sale from a pharmacy, which were previously only available on prescription, has increased and thus expected to increase still further. As such, it is predicted that in near future pharmacists will be able to prescribe medicines as supplementary prescribers in developing countries. These facts have led pharmacists to re-evaluate their roles, and to promote themselves as health professionals as they must consider them selves as experts in medicines capable to take the lead of patients health status and the outcomes of different therapeutic regimen. In secondary care, clinical and ward pharmacy have become important concepts, with pharmacists increasingly being integrated into the health care teams alongside acquiring specializations i.e. in drug information, oncology, paediatrics and radiopharmacy. The contribution of social science to pharmacy practice: Pharmacy services in developing countries could make a greater contribution to health care. Steps to ensure that pharmacy education provides students with the knowledge and skills to contribute to public health priorities of their local populations are increasingly seen as an important goal of pharmacy education. Clearly, in developing their professional skills in social and clinical pharmacy, students need to appreciate that patients will have their own beliefs, views, and perspectives about their health and use of medicines which might be important determinants of the success of any health promotion activities. These activities include development effective counseling and communication skills, enhancing medication compliance, improving the understanding of ones disease, encouraging patients to seek professional care, assisting patients in making informed decision, and enhancing pharmacy professionalism and leadership qualitie s. Global Case Studies Developed Countries In 1975, the study commission on pharmacy identified the need to incorporate the behavioral and social sciences in pharmacy alongside clinical practice. In the same year, the Council on Pharmaceutical Education included pharmacy administration, social and behavioral sciences in their indicative curriculum. As per 2004, the American Association of College of pharmacy10 incorporates many social and behavioral topics as required outcomes of pharmacy programs in the USA. In UK, the Nuffield Committee of inquiry into pharmacy decided behavioral sciences to be incorporated into undergraduate pharmacy curriculum in 1986. To date, social pharmacy is now taught in all schools of pharmacy and forms part of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society ¢s indicative curriculum. A number of Northern and Eastern European countries introduced social pharmacy into their curricula in the mid-1970 ¢s11. In Sweden, courses were taught since 1957, dealing with social pharmacy and low/regulations in pharmacy which in 1970 transformed to social pharmacy. In Denmark, the first social pharmacy course was introduced in 1972-73 and by 1980 the course appeared in the course catalogue as social pharmacy with social science. In 1992, a chair in social pharmacy was established at Royal Danish School of Pharmacy. In Belgium, the concept of communication skills was introduced into the pharmacy fourth year students. A variety of methods that are used to assess pharmacy practice students , including a 6-month pharmacy internship, in which students are assessed by a preceptors report; a week-long workshop on communication and pharmacotherapy; a multiple choice exam on pharmacotherapy; and an open book oral exam. In the academic year 2000-01, the strongest correlations were between internship and oral exam performance. This trend continued in 2001-02, in addition to multiple choice exam correlating with both oral and internship performance. Developing Countries In the scenario of developing countries the contribution of pharmacy education in Malaysia is worth mentioning. The Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) is the first public university to offer a Bachelors degree in Pharmacy in Malaysia since 1972. To date, it has produced more than 2,000 pharmacy graduates which serve as local pharmacy workforce. The School of Pharmaceutical Sciences has a multi-disciplinary pharmacy curriculum designed to provide holistic training to  prepare students for life-long learning, and to equip them with broad scientific knowledge and essential skills. The integrated pharmacy program consists of basic science and pharmaceutical science subjects in the first two years of study, and progresses towards patient care and clinical pharmacy. In the third and fourth years, the students professional skills are linked to an advanced clinical and pharmacy practice. Hence the curriculum inculcates a high standard of pharmacy training in practical knowledge and profession al skills. The 4-year program covers 6 disciplines of study, namely Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Physiology, Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacy and Social and Administrative Pharmacy. Social and Administrative Pharmacy subjects were first incorporated in the curriculum in 1992-93 academic sessions and has been designed to prepare students for responsible leadership positions in academia, industry or public service.12 Hence this course equips the students for careers in governmental agencies, pharmaceutical firms, community pharmacies, universities, professional bodies and health insurance companies, all of which have a direct and indirect impact on the social fabric of the country. Students learn to give optimum services to the patients, as well as to make them aware about the prevention and cure of diseases. The Discipline of Social and Administrative Pharmacy (DSAP) at USM is committed to promote research in drug use problems in developing countries.13 At present more than fifty postgraduate students from more than ten developing countries are being guided by the faculty members in carrying out drug-related research in their countries as well as in Malaysia. The priority areas of research of DSAP are multidisciplinary and include pharmacoeconomics, pharmacoepidemiology/ pharmacovigilance, socio-behavioral aspects of health and pharmacy, pharmaceutical care, outcomes research, quality of life assessment, decision analysis, and pharmaceutical management and marketing. Additional domains of research include pharmaceutical public policy, pharmaceutical education, pharmacoinformatics and pharmaceutical anthropology. Another striking example is the case of Ghana, where pharmacists are often the most easily accessible health professionals to give consultation on health problems14. The incorporation of a landmark health promotional module in pharmacy course in Kumasi, Ghana comprises of both classroom activity as well as outdoor field work. This field work component enables the student to prepare health promotional materials by visiting and observing their local population and thus identify and explore their local compromised resources. This module thus serves to prepare Challenges for social pharmacy: A good example of how social pharmacy faces challenges can be gained from the recent review by Puspitasari et al 15 , which focused on counseling given to patients who purchase prescription medicines from community pharmacies. Their data showed that the nature of researchers relationships with the profession, measures to improve community pharmacy practices, the importance of learning from other disciplines, and the need to internationalize our discipline challenge social pharmacy research works. In addressing the role of a pharmacy, some authors16, 17 have previously suggested that pharmacists should have an increasing role in patient care and that patient counseling is one of the cornerstones of this new role. The very wide variation in counseling rates found by Puspitasari and the colleagues (8 to 80% of patients received verbal counseling) suggests that this new role is carried out more in some settings than others. Social pharmacy research had pla yed and still continues to play an important role in documenting this practice variation. Based on these reports, one of the major challenges is how to improve the practice of those settings and practitioners who are currently lagging behind. Clearly, researchers dealing with social pharmacy and pharmacy practice tread a delicate line. In order to accomplish the research findings of social pharmacy into practice the relationship of the social pharmacist with the practitioners must be close and positive enough that practitioners must listen to and involve themselves in the implementation of findings in the hope of improvements in pharmacy practice. In addition, researchers need to be independent enough so that they can identify the need for improvement, and advocate in the interest of public health. Non-pharmacists social pharmacy researchers face an additional set of challenges and pressures which mainly include their own recognition within social pharmacy.18 As pointed out by Puspitasari et al,15 studies on improvements in community pharmacy practice are urgently needed. Previous studies highlighted that motivated, innovative pharmacists can provide effective secondary services, which are undoubtedly important; 19, 20 however, interventional research studies in order to assess or improve the performance of the present pharmacist or pharmacy assistants are the need of time. Substantial information on how to improve present pharmacy practice exists in other professions also, and this can be instrumental in bringing changes in social pharmacy. For instance, the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organization of Care Review Group have a long-term experience in dealing with practice improvement.21,22 Overall, the major outcome of these works is the passive dissemination of information, i.e. written materials and lectures are not effective in changing practice. However, reminders and interactive educational meetings are effective strategies as they promote discussion and educational outreach. Multifaceted interventions tend to be more effective than single ones. Reviews of evidence on specific issues, such as interventions aimed at improving the use of antimicrobials have produced similar findings.23 Strategies for improving practice are a key concern in most health professions such as pharmacy, medicine, nursing, but are dealt with separately in each profession. Although differences may exist between professions and countries, practice researchers in each discipline can learn considerably by interacting with each other. Social pharmacy research is done in few developed countries: USA, UK, the Netherlands, Finland, Australia, and Canada. According to Ryan et al,11 social pharmacy is taught in seventeen countries those above plus four more Scandinavian countries, more European countries, New Zealand, and very few countries in the developing world. Thus the dissemination of social pharmacy research still remains a major challenge, especially in developing countries where there are documented problems in the purchase, distribution, and use of medicines. To overcome these problems, one possibility would be to establish strategic alliances with countries already working in these areas or with organizations such as the World Health Organization and Management Sciences for Health (www.msh.org) that have expertise, experience, and commitment to improve access to and use of medicines in developing countries. Conclusion: Social pharmacy program can be approached globally through various course types and formats. These courses make the students expose and explore societal concerns and health inequalities in their respective resource-deficient settings. Practical application of some components makes the student aware of the impact of sociodemographic on health and illness and inculcates sound understanding of the culture as well as social and moral obligations towards society in general and individual in particular. With regard to Universiti Sains Malaysia, constructive discussion to incorporate social-behavioral concepts and principles into other courses throughout the pharmacy curriculum can make the future prospects bright for social pharmacy. Students should be taught social pharmacy concepts and principles in every subject as pharmacoeconomics, pharmacoepidemiology, socio-behavioral aspects of health and ethical issues could and should be discussed during lectures and prior to clinical rotations. This shift in pharmacy practice from a product- to an information- and patient-based orientation affects patient knowledge, and increases liability and health care costs, which continue to place pharmacists in a position of great responsibility.